### Extended Episode Description (for podcast websites/apps)
After more than a month of silence, NASA is making what may be its final attempt to contact the MAVEN Mars orbiter. Mission leaders are pessimistic, but the veteran spacecraft has surprised them before. We break down what happened, what's at stake, and what MAVEN's potential loss means for Mars exploration.
On a brighter note, the SpaceX Crew-11 astronauts have safely returned to Houston following the first-ever medical evacuation from the International Space Station—a historic operation that went flawlessly. We explore how NASA executed this unprecedented mission.
Europe's taking a major step forward with the announcement that the first Ariane 64 rocket will launch February 12th. This four-booster beast can carry more than double the payload of its predecessor, and its debut mission will deploy 32 satellites for Amazon's Kuiper constellation.
Scientists using CERN's particle accelerators have discovered that iron-rich asteroids are tougher than we thought—and they actually get stronger under stress. This surprising finding could reshape how we approach planetary defense.
China has released the world's first practical software for keeping time on the Moon. It sounds like science fiction, but lunar timekeeping is becoming essential as multiple nations prepare for sustained lunar operations.
And after 35 years in orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is still delivering stunning science, with a new gallery of images showing protoplanetary disks where planets are being born around young stars.
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00:00:00 --> 00:00:03 Anna: Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source for
00:00:03 --> 00:00:05 the latest space and astronomy news. I'm
00:00:05 --> 00:00:06 Anna.
00:00:06 --> 00:00:08 Avery: And I'm, um, avery. It's Saturday, January
00:00:09 --> 00:00:12 17, 2026, and we've got an
00:00:12 --> 00:00:14 absolutely packed episode for you today.
00:00:14 --> 00:00:17 Anna: We really do. And we're leading with some
00:00:17 --> 00:00:20 bittersweet news from Mars. NASA's making
00:00:20 --> 00:00:22 what might be their final attempt to contact
00:00:22 --> 00:00:25 the Maven Orbiter, which has been silent for
00:00:25 --> 00:00:28 over a month now. It's looking increasingly
00:00:28 --> 00:00:30 unlikely that they'll be able to recover the
00:00:30 --> 00:00:31 spacecra.
00:00:31 --> 00:00:34 Avery: That's tough news, but we've also got some
00:00:34 --> 00:00:36 incredible human achievements to celebrate.
00:00:36 --> 00:00:39 The SpaceX crew, 11 astronauts have
00:00:39 --> 00:00:41 safely returned to Houston following the
00:00:41 --> 00:00:43 first ever medical evacuation from the
00:00:43 --> 00:00:45 International Space Station. We'll get into
00:00:45 --> 00:00:47 the details of how that historic operation
00:00:47 --> 00:00:48 unfolded.
00:00:48 --> 00:00:51 Anna: Europe's stepping up its launch game too.
00:00:51 --> 00:00:53 Arianespace has announced they'll be
00:00:53 --> 00:00:56 launching the first Ariane 6.4 Rocket on
00:00:56 --> 00:00:59 February 12th. That's the more powerful 4
00:00:59 --> 00:01:01 booster version. This is a big deal for
00:01:01 --> 00:01:03 European space capabilities.
00:01:04 --> 00:01:06 Avery: We're also diving into some fascinating
00:01:06 --> 00:01:08 research today. Scientists have been using
00:01:08 --> 00:01:10 CERN's particle accelerators to simulate
00:01:10 --> 00:01:13 asteroid impacts. And what they discovered
00:01:13 --> 00:01:15 about iron rich space rocks could change how
00:01:15 --> 00:01:17 we approach planetary defense.
00:01:17 --> 00:01:20 Anna: Then we've got something that sounds like
00:01:20 --> 00:01:23 science fiction, but is very real. China has
00:01:23 --> 00:01:25 released the world's first practical software
00:01:25 --> 00:01:28 for keeping time on the Moon. Yes,
00:01:28 --> 00:01:31 lunar timekeeping is now a thing and it's
00:01:31 --> 00:01:32 more important than you might think.
00:01:33 --> 00:01:35 Avery: And we'll wrap up with some stunning new
00:01:35 --> 00:01:38 images from from Hubble. Even after 35 years
00:01:38 --> 00:01:40 in orbit, it's still showing us where planets
00:01:40 --> 00:01:43 are born in protoplanetary disks around young
00:01:43 --> 00:01:44 stars.
00:01:44 --> 00:01:46 Anna: Lots to cover. So let's get started.
00:01:46 --> 00:01:48 Avery: Let's start with that Mars story. Anna.
00:01:48 --> 00:01:51 NASA's Maven orbiter has been one of our most
00:01:51 --> 00:01:53 valuable assets at Mars for over a decade.
00:01:54 --> 00:01:56 What's the latest on the recovery efforts?
00:01:56 --> 00:01:58 Anna: Well, it's not looking good, I'm afraid.
00:01:58 --> 00:02:01 Maven, that's the Mars Atmosphere and
00:02:01 --> 00:02:04 Volatile Evolution Orbiter went silent on
00:02:04 --> 00:02:07 December 6, 2025, and NASA has
00:02:07 --> 00:02:10 unable to re establish contact ever since.
00:02:10 --> 00:02:13 The spacecraft has been orbiting Mars since
00:02:13 --> 00:02:15 2014, providing invaluable data
00:02:15 --> 00:02:18 about the Martian atmosphere and serving as a
00:02:18 --> 00:02:21 critical communications relay for the
00:02:21 --> 00:02:23 Curiosity and Perseverance rovers.
00:02:23 --> 00:02:25 Avery: So what exactly happened? I mean,
00:02:25 --> 00:02:28 communications blackouts aren't completely
00:02:28 --> 00:02:29 unusual for Mars missions, right?
00:02:30 --> 00:02:32 Anna: You're right, they're not. In this case,
00:02:32 --> 00:02:34 Maven passed behind Mars, which
00:02:34 --> 00:02:37 temporarily blocks communication. That's a
00:02:37 --> 00:02:39 routine occurrence. But when it should have
00:02:39 --> 00:02:42 emerged on the other side, NASA's Deep Space
00:02:42 --> 00:02:45 Network couldn't regain contact. What makes
00:02:45 --> 00:02:48 it worse is that this happened right before a
00:02:48 --> 00:02:49 solar conjunction.
00:02:49 --> 00:02:51 Avery: That's when the sun sits directly between
00:02:51 --> 00:02:53 Earth and Mars, correct?
00:02:53 --> 00:02:56 Anna: Exactly. During solar conjunction, which
00:02:56 --> 00:02:59 occurs roughly every two years, solar
00:02:59 --> 00:03:01 particles interfere with radio signals.
00:03:01 --> 00:03:03 NASA, uh, temporarily halts all
00:03:03 --> 00:03:05 communications with Mars missions during this
00:03:05 --> 00:03:08 period to avoid sending corrupted commands
00:03:08 --> 00:03:10 or receiving incomplete data that could
00:03:10 --> 00:03:13 damage spacecraft. Though the conjunction
00:03:13 --> 00:03:16 basically meant NASA had to wait before they
00:03:16 --> 00:03:18 could even try to recover Maven.
00:03:18 --> 00:03:20 Avery: And, um, that conjunction period just ended.
00:03:21 --> 00:03:23 Anna: Right? NASA said they wouldn't have contact
00:03:23 --> 00:03:26 with any Mars missions until Friday, January
00:03:26 --> 00:03:29 16th. So as of today, they're making
00:03:29 --> 00:03:32 renewed attempts to contact Maven. But here's
00:03:32 --> 00:03:34 the concerning part. Louise Proctor, the
00:03:34 --> 00:03:37 director of NASA's Planetary Science
00:03:37 --> 00:03:39 Division, said on January 13, and
00:03:39 --> 00:03:42 I quote, we'll start looking again, but
00:03:42 --> 00:03:44 at this point, it's looking very unlikely
00:03:44 --> 00:03:47 that we are going to be able to recover the
00:03:47 --> 00:03:47 spacecraft.
00:03:48 --> 00:03:51 Avery: That's pretty pessimistic language from NASA.
00:03:51 --> 00:03:53 Do we know what might have caused the initial
00:03:53 --> 00:03:53 failure?
00:03:54 --> 00:03:56 Anna: The leading theory is that Maven started
00:03:56 --> 00:03:59 rotating unexpectedly after passing behind
00:03:59 --> 00:04:01 Mars. This would have shifted the spacecraft
00:04:01 --> 00:04:04 out of its planned orbit and potentially
00:04:04 --> 00:04:07 moved its antenna away from Earth. But
00:04:07 --> 00:04:09 here's where it gets more complicated. Maven
00:04:10 --> 00:04:12 has had aging hardware issues for years now.
00:04:13 --> 00:04:14 Avery: What kind of issues are we talking about?
00:04:15 --> 00:04:17 Anna: The spacecraft has had problems with its
00:04:17 --> 00:04:19 onboard inertial measurement units, or
00:04:19 --> 00:04:22 IMUs, which are essential for
00:04:22 --> 00:04:24 orientation in space. Back in
00:04:24 --> 00:04:27 2022, Maven spent about three months
00:04:27 --> 00:04:29 in safe mode. Because of IMU problems,
00:04:30 --> 00:04:32 the mission team had to rely on backup
00:04:32 --> 00:04:35 systems that have experienced accelerated
00:04:35 --> 00:04:37 wear and tear. They even developed an
00:04:37 --> 00:04:40 alternative all stellar navigation mode that
00:04:40 --> 00:04:43 uses stars for orientation instead of relying
00:04:43 --> 00:04:44 on the imus.
00:04:44 --> 00:04:47 Avery: So it sounds like Maven has been living on
00:04:47 --> 00:04:48 borrowed time for a while now.
00:04:49 --> 00:04:51 Anna: In some ways, yes. The spacecraft's
00:04:51 --> 00:04:54 inability to fully recover from those 2022
00:04:54 --> 00:04:57 outages led to missed observations of
00:04:57 --> 00:05:00 significant solar flares and disrupted its
00:05:00 --> 00:05:02 communications relay role. That said,
00:05:03 --> 00:05:05 Maven still has enough fuel to remain in
00:05:05 --> 00:05:08 orbit until at least 2030. So the
00:05:08 --> 00:05:11 hardware could theoretically keep working if
00:05:11 --> 00:05:13 they can just re establish contact.
00:05:13 --> 00:05:15 Avery: What's the impact going to be if they can't
00:05:15 --> 00:05:18 recover it? I imagine the rovers depend on
00:05:18 --> 00:05:19 these orbiters for communications.
00:05:20 --> 00:05:22 Anna: That's a great point. Maven has been, uh, a
00:05:22 --> 00:05:25 key communications relay for the Curiosity
00:05:25 --> 00:05:27 and Perseverance rovers. With Maven
00:05:27 --> 00:05:30 offline, NASA has had to shift more of that
00:05:30 --> 00:05:33 burden to other orbiters, specifically Mars
00:05:33 --> 00:05:36 Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Odyssey.
00:05:36 --> 00:05:38 This puts increased pressure on those
00:05:38 --> 00:05:41 Spacecraft to maintain communications and
00:05:41 --> 00:05:42 support surface science.
00:05:42 --> 00:05:44 Avery: Activities and scientifically, what are we
00:05:44 --> 00:05:45 losing?
00:05:45 --> 00:05:48 Anna: Maven's scientific contributions have been
00:05:48 --> 00:05:50 enormous. It's helped us understand how
00:05:50 --> 00:05:53 Mars lost its once thick atmosphere and
00:05:53 --> 00:05:56 became the cold dry world it is today.
00:05:56 --> 00:05:59 The data it collected on Martian weather
00:05:59 --> 00:06:01 patterns, dust storms and auroras
00:06:01 --> 00:06:03 provided insights into the planet's climate
00:06:03 --> 00:06:06 system and potential habitability. Without
00:06:06 --> 00:06:09 Maven, we'd have critical gaps in our
00:06:09 --> 00:06:11 ongoing atmospheric studies of Mars.
00:06:11 --> 00:06:13 Avery: So fingers crossed that these new contact
00:06:13 --> 00:06:16 attempts work out. When um, will we know
00:06:16 --> 00:06:16 more?
00:06:16 --> 00:06:18 Anna: NASA should have results from their latest
00:06:18 --> 00:06:21 attempts very soon, but given the
00:06:21 --> 00:06:23 pessimistic tone from their leadership, I
00:06:23 --> 00:06:25 think we need to prepare for the possibility
00:06:25 --> 00:06:28 that Maven's remarkable decade long mission
00:06:28 --> 00:06:31 may have come to an end. It would be a sad
00:06:31 --> 00:06:34 conclusion to such a successful spacecraft,
00:06:34 --> 00:06:37 but it's given us more than 10 years of
00:06:37 --> 00:06:38 groundbreaking science.
00:06:38 --> 00:06:40 Avery: Absolutely. And that's well beyond its
00:06:40 --> 00:06:42 original design life, right?
00:06:42 --> 00:06:45 Anna: Oh, definitely. Like so many NASA
00:06:45 --> 00:06:47 missions, it far exceeded expectations.
00:06:48 --> 00:06:50 Let's hope there's one more surprise left in
00:06:50 --> 00:06:53 it. Here's hoping. Moving from Mars back
00:06:53 --> 00:06:54 to closer to home.
00:06:55 --> 00:06:57 Let's talk about that historic ISS medical
00:06:57 --> 00:07:00 evacuation. Avery, this was really
00:07:00 --> 00:07:01 unprecedented.
00:07:01 --> 00:07:04 Avery: It absolutely was. The four astronauts of
00:07:04 --> 00:07:07 SpaceX's Crew 11 mission are now safely
00:07:07 --> 00:07:09 back in Houston after splashing down off the
00:07:09 --> 00:07:11 coast of Long Beach, California early
00:07:11 --> 00:07:14 Thursday morning. This marked the very first
00:07:14 --> 00:07:16 medical evacuation from the International
00:07:16 --> 00:07:19 Space Station in its more than 25 year
00:07:19 --> 00:07:19 history.
00:07:19 --> 00:07:21 Anna: Who were the crew members involved?
00:07:21 --> 00:07:24 Avery: The crew consisted of NASA astronauts Zena
00:07:24 --> 00:07:27 Cardman and Mike Finke, Kimiya Yui from
00:07:27 --> 00:07:30 Japan's Aerospace Agency, and cosmonaut
00:07:30 --> 00:07:33 Oleg Platanov from Roscosmos.
00:07:33 --> 00:07:35 They launched back in early August for what
00:07:35 --> 00:07:37 was supposed to be a standard six month stay
00:07:37 --> 00:07:38 aboard the station.
00:07:39 --> 00:07:41 Anna: So they came home about five weeks early,
00:07:41 --> 00:07:42 correct?
00:07:42 --> 00:07:44 Avery: That's right. One of the four crew members
00:07:44 --> 00:07:46 experienced a medical issue in orbit last
00:07:46 --> 00:07:49 week and NASA made the decision to bring the
00:07:49 --> 00:07:51 entire crew home ahead of schedule.
00:07:52 --> 00:07:54 Now NASA has been very protective of medical
00:07:54 --> 00:07:57 privacy, which is absolutely appropriate. So
00:07:57 --> 00:07:59 they haven't disclosed which crew member had
00:07:59 --> 00:08:01 the issue or what the specific medical
00:08:01 --> 00:08:02 problem was.
00:08:02 --> 00:08:04 Anna: What do we know about how they're doing now?
00:08:04 --> 00:08:07 Avery: According to NASA's latest update from Friday
00:08:07 --> 00:08:10 afternoon, all four crew members are stable
00:08:10 --> 00:08:12 and undergoing standard post flight
00:08:12 --> 00:08:14 reconditioning and evaluations at uh, Johnson
00:08:14 --> 00:08:17 Space Center. After splashing down, they
00:08:17 --> 00:08:18 spent about a day and night at a local
00:08:18 --> 00:08:21 medical facility in California before flying
00:08:21 --> 00:08:21 to Houston.
00:08:22 --> 00:08:24 Anna: I have to say the fact that they described
00:08:24 --> 00:08:26 them as stable and that they're doing
00:08:26 --> 00:08:28 Standard post flight evaluations
00:08:29 --> 00:08:31 suggests this wasn't a dire emergency
00:08:31 --> 00:08:32 situation.
00:08:32 --> 00:08:35 Avery: That's my read on it too. And NASA officials
00:08:35 --> 00:08:37 have been pretty clear about describing this
00:08:37 --> 00:08:40 as a deliberate, carefully planned operation
00:08:40 --> 00:08:43 rather than a panic situation. In fact, one
00:08:43 --> 00:08:45 NASA representative said, and um, I'm, um,
00:08:45 --> 00:08:47 paraphrasing here. This is NASA at its
00:08:47 --> 00:08:49 finest, referring to how smoothly the
00:08:49 --> 00:08:51 evacuation and splashdown went.
00:08:52 --> 00:08:53 Anna: Can you walk us through what a medical
00:08:53 --> 00:08:56 evacuation from the ISS actually involves?
00:08:56 --> 00:08:58 This seems incredibly complex.
00:08:59 --> 00:09:01 Avery: It is. First, you have to understand that the
00:09:01 --> 00:09:04 ISS has medical capabilities on board.
00:09:04 --> 00:09:07 There's medical equipment supplies, and the
00:09:07 --> 00:09:09 crew receives training to handle various
00:09:09 --> 00:09:11 medical situations. They can consult with
00:09:11 --> 00:09:13 flight surgeons on the ground in real time.
00:09:13 --> 00:09:16 But sometimes ground based medical care is
00:09:16 --> 00:09:18 simply necessary, either for more advanced
00:09:18 --> 00:09:21 diagnostic equipment or for treatment options
00:09:21 --> 00:09:22 that aren't available in orbit.
00:09:23 --> 00:09:25 Anna: So, uh, the decision to bring someone home is
00:09:25 --> 00:09:26 never made lightly.
00:09:26 --> 00:09:29 Avery: Exactly. In this case, the medical issue
00:09:29 --> 00:09:32 required evaluation and potential treatment
00:09:32 --> 00:09:34 that couldn't be done on the station. Once
00:09:34 --> 00:09:36 that call was made, they had to prepare the
00:09:36 --> 00:09:38 crew Dragon spacecraft, the same one they
00:09:38 --> 00:09:41 arrived in, named Endeavour, for an early
00:09:41 --> 00:09:43 departure. This involves checking all
00:09:43 --> 00:09:46 systems, planning the undocking and reentry
00:09:46 --> 00:09:48 trajectory, coordinating with recovery teams,
00:09:48 --> 00:09:50 and making sure weather conditions would be
00:09:50 --> 00:09:51 suitable for splashdown.
00:09:52 --> 00:09:55 Anna: And they successfully executed all of that in
00:09:55 --> 00:09:55 just a few days.
00:09:56 --> 00:09:59 Avery: They did. The crew undocked from the ISS on
00:09:59 --> 00:10:01 January 14, completed their deorbit
00:10:01 --> 00:10:04 burn and splashed down safely early on
00:10:04 --> 00:10:07 January 15th. Recovery teams were standing by
00:10:07 --> 00:10:09 and quickly retrieved the capsule and crew.
00:10:09 --> 00:10:12 The whole operation went remarkably smoothly.
00:10:12 --> 00:10:14 Anna: What about the ISS itself? How is it
00:10:14 --> 00:10:16 operating with a reduced crew?
00:10:16 --> 00:10:18 Avery: That's a great question. Right now the
00:10:18 --> 00:10:20 station is operating with what they're
00:10:20 --> 00:10:22 calling a skeleton crew of just three people.
00:10:23 --> 00:10:25 NASA astronaut Chris Williams and two
00:10:25 --> 00:10:28 Roscosmos cosmonauts Sergei Kuts
00:10:28 --> 00:10:31 Vertskov and Sergei Mikayev. That's less
00:10:31 --> 00:10:33 than half the normal complement of seven crew
00:10:33 --> 00:10:34 members.
00:10:34 --> 00:10:36 Anna: Can three people effectively run the iss?
00:10:37 --> 00:10:39 Avery: They can maintain it and keep critical
00:10:39 --> 00:10:41 systems running, but it definitely limits
00:10:41 --> 00:10:44 what science can be done. The station won't
00:10:44 --> 00:10:46 return to its full operational capacity until
00:10:46 --> 00:10:49 SpaceX's Crew 12 mission arrives. That's
00:10:49 --> 00:10:51 currently scheduled for February 15, though
00:10:51 --> 00:10:54 NASA and SpaceX are looking at whether they
00:10:54 --> 00:10:55 can move that timeline up a bit.
00:10:56 --> 00:10:59 Anna: I imagine this whole situation must have been
00:10:59 --> 00:11:00 quite stressful for everyone involved.
00:11:01 --> 00:11:04 Avery: No doubt, but what strikes me is how calmly
00:11:04 --> 00:11:06 and professionally it was handled. In one of
00:11:06 --> 00:11:09 the final communications before undocking,
00:11:09 --> 00:11:11 Crew 11 Commander Mike Finke said it was
00:11:11 --> 00:11:14 bittersweet to be leaving early. He handed
00:11:14 --> 00:11:16 over command of the ISS to Chris Williams,
00:11:16 --> 00:11:18 and you could hear in his voice that he would
00:11:18 --> 00:11:20 have preferred to complete the flight full
00:11:20 --> 00:11:22 mission, but he also understood the necessity
00:11:22 --> 00:11:23 of coming home.
00:11:23 --> 00:11:26 Anna: It really speaks to the incredible planning
00:11:26 --> 00:11:28 and preparation that goes into human
00:11:28 --> 00:11:30 spaceflight. Even in an off nominal
00:11:30 --> 00:11:32 situation like this. The systems and
00:11:32 --> 00:11:35 procedures worked exactly as designed.
00:11:35 --> 00:11:37 Avery: And I think it's worth noting that this won't
00:11:37 --> 00:11:40 affect other upcoming missions. NASA
00:11:40 --> 00:11:42 Administrator Jared Isaacman specifically
00:11:42 --> 00:11:45 stated that this ISS evacuation shouldn't
00:11:45 --> 00:11:47 interfere with the upcoming Artemis 2 moon
00:11:47 --> 00:11:49 mission, which is still on track for a
00:11:49 --> 00:11:51 possible launch as early as February 6th.
00:11:51 --> 00:11:54 Anna: That's good to hear. Well, here's hoping for
00:11:54 --> 00:11:57 a full recovery for whichever crew member
00:11:57 --> 00:11:59 needed the medical attention. And kudos to
00:11:59 --> 00:12:02 everyone involved in executing such a complex
00:12:02 --> 00:12:04 operation so flawlessly.
00:12:05 --> 00:12:07 Avery: Agreed. It really was NASA at its
00:12:07 --> 00:12:08 finest.
00:12:08 --> 00:12:11 Anna: Switching gears now to European spaceflight.
00:12:11 --> 00:12:14 Avery. Europe is about to debut a
00:12:14 --> 00:12:16 significantly more powerful version of its
00:12:16 --> 00:12:17 new rocket, right?
00:12:18 --> 00:12:20 Avery: That's right, Anna. Arianespace has announced
00:12:20 --> 00:12:23 that the first flight of the Ariane 64 will
00:12:23 --> 00:12:25 launch on February 12 from the Guyana Space
00:12:25 --> 00:12:28 center in French Guiana. This is the four
00:12:28 --> 00:12:30 booster configuration of the Ariane 6, and it
00:12:30 --> 00:12:33 represents a major step up in capability for
00:12:33 --> 00:12:34 European launch services.
00:12:35 --> 00:12:37 Anna: Let's back up a second for anyone who might
00:12:37 --> 00:12:40 not be familiar with the Ariane 6. Can you
00:12:40 --> 00:12:41 give us the background?
00:12:41 --> 00:12:44 Avery: Sure. Huh? The Ariane 6 is Europe's newest
00:12:44 --> 00:12:46 heavy lift rocket, designed to replace the
00:12:46 --> 00:12:48 Ariane 5, which served for nearly three
00:12:48 --> 00:12:51 decades. The inaugural flight was back in
00:12:51 --> 00:12:54 July 2024. And throughout 2025,
00:12:54 --> 00:12:57 Arianespace flew four more missions, all
00:12:57 --> 00:13:00 carrying payloads for organizations like ESA,
00:13:00 --> 00:13:03 Umetsat and Sinas. The French Space
00:13:03 --> 00:13:03 Agency.
00:13:04 --> 00:13:06 Anna: And all of those flights used the Ariane
00:13:06 --> 00:13:08 62 configuration?
00:13:09 --> 00:13:11 Avery: Exactly. The Ariane 62 uses
00:13:11 --> 00:13:14 two P120C solid fuel boosters
00:13:14 --> 00:13:16 strapped to the side of the rocket's core
00:13:16 --> 00:13:18 stage. Each of those boosters produces
00:13:18 --> 00:13:21 roughly 4 kilonewtons of thrust.
00:13:21 --> 00:13:23 It's been doing great for medium lift
00:13:23 --> 00:13:25 missions with a capacity to deliver about
00:13:25 --> 00:13:28 10.3 tons to low Earth orbit.
00:13:28 --> 00:13:31 Anna: So the Ariane 64 just adds two
00:13:31 --> 00:13:32 more boosters, right?
00:13:33 --> 00:13:35 Avery: It uses four of those P120C boosters
00:13:35 --> 00:13:38 instead of two. And that makes a dramatic
00:13:38 --> 00:13:41 difference in capability. The Ariane 64
00:13:41 --> 00:13:44 can deliver up to 21.6 tons to
00:13:44 --> 00:13:46 low Earth orbit, more than double what the
00:13:46 --> 00:13:49 Ariane 62 can handle. That puts it in the
00:13:49 --> 00:13:51 heavy lift category, competing with rockets
00:13:51 --> 00:13:53 like SpaceX's Falcon Heavy.
00:13:53 --> 00:13:56 Anna: That's a significant jump. What's driving the
00:13:56 --> 00:13:58 need for this more powerful version.
00:13:58 --> 00:14:01 Avery: Well, this first mission actually gives us a
00:14:01 --> 00:14:03 perfect example. The Ariane 6 4's first
00:14:03 --> 00:14:05 flight will be launching satellites for
00:14:05 --> 00:14:08 Amazon's Project Cooper Broadband Internet
00:14:08 --> 00:14:10 Constellation. Arianespace has an 18
00:14:10 --> 00:14:13 flight contract with Amazon, and this first
00:14:13 --> 00:14:16 mission, designated LE01, which
00:14:16 --> 00:14:18 stands LEO Europe 01, will
00:14:18 --> 00:14:21 deploy 32 Cooper satellites.
00:14:21 --> 00:14:23 Anna: Amazon's competing with SpaceX's
00:14:23 --> 00:14:24 Starlink, right?
00:14:24 --> 00:14:27 Avery: That's right. Amazon already has about
00:14:27 --> 00:14:29 180 satellites in orbit, and they're
00:14:29 --> 00:14:31 rapidly building out the Constellation.
00:14:31 --> 00:14:34 Having access to the more powerful Ariane
00:14:34 --> 00:14:37 64 means they can launch more satellites at
00:14:37 --> 00:14:39 once, which speeds up the deployment schedule
00:14:39 --> 00:14:41 and reduces the total number of launches
00:14:41 --> 00:14:41 needed.
00:14:42 --> 00:14:44 Anna: Is there anything else notable about this
00:14:44 --> 00:14:45 particular flight?
00:14:45 --> 00:14:48 Avery: Yes, actually. This will be the first Ariane
00:14:48 --> 00:14:51 6 mission to use the rocket's larger 20 meter
00:14:51 --> 00:14:54 long fairing. All previous flights used a
00:14:54 --> 00:14:57 shorter 14 meter fairing. The longer fairing
00:14:57 --> 00:14:59 provides more volume for larger payloads, or
00:14:59 --> 00:15:02 in this case, for fitting more satellites
00:15:02 --> 00:15:03 into the payload stack.
00:15:03 --> 00:15:05 Anna: How long will the mission last?
00:15:05 --> 00:15:08 Avery: Ariane Stace hasn't published a complete
00:15:08 --> 00:15:10 mission breakdown yet, but they've stated the
00:15:10 --> 00:15:12 entire flight will last one hour and 54
00:15:12 --> 00:15:15 minutes. That presumably includes deploying
00:15:15 --> 00:15:18 all 32 satellites and then deorbiting the
00:15:18 --> 00:15:20 rocket's upper stage in a controlled manner,
00:15:20 --> 00:15:22 which is important for reducing space debris.
00:15:22 --> 00:15:25 Anna: What does this mean for Arianespace's launch
00:15:25 --> 00:15:26 cadence going forward?
00:15:27 --> 00:15:29 Avery: They're being pretty ambitious. Arianespace
00:15:29 --> 00:15:32 is aiming to double the number of Ariane 6
00:15:32 --> 00:15:34 launches this year compared to 2025.
00:15:35 --> 00:15:37 That would mean as many as eight Ariane 6
00:15:37 --> 00:15:40 flights over the next 12 months. Given that
00:15:40 --> 00:15:42 they're still ramping up operations with what
00:15:42 --> 00:15:45 is still a fairly new rocket, that's a
00:15:45 --> 00:15:46 challenging goal, but it shows their
00:15:46 --> 00:15:47 confidence.
00:15:47 --> 00:15:49 Anna: Are there any other upgrades in the works?
00:15:50 --> 00:15:53 Avery: Actually, yes. The company is developing an
00:15:53 --> 00:15:55 upgraded version of the solid fuel booster
00:15:55 --> 00:15:58 called the P160C. It carries
00:15:58 --> 00:16:01 an additional 14 tons of solid propellant
00:16:01 --> 00:16:04 compared to the current P120C.
00:16:04 --> 00:16:06 That upgrade has already been fully qualified
00:16:06 --> 00:16:09 for use on Both the Ariane 62 for medium
00:16:09 --> 00:16:12 lift missions, the Ariane 644 for heavy
00:16:12 --> 00:16:15 lift, the Vega C for smaller payloads and
00:16:15 --> 00:16:17 these future upgrades. Europe is positioning
00:16:17 --> 00:16:19 itself to be very competitive in the
00:16:19 --> 00:16:22 commercial launch market. And that's crucial,
00:16:22 --> 00:16:24 especially as we see increasing competition
00:16:24 --> 00:16:27 from SpaceX, China and other emerging launch
00:16:27 --> 00:16:28 providers.
00:16:28 --> 00:16:31 Anna: Will the, uh, February 12 launch be publicly
00:16:31 --> 00:16:31 viewable?
00:16:31 --> 00:16:34 Avery: Arianespace typically provides live coverage
00:16:34 --> 00:16:36 of their launches, so I'd expect we'll be
00:16:36 --> 00:16:38 able to watch this historic first flight of
00:16:38 --> 00:16:41 the Ariane 6 4. It should be quite a
00:16:41 --> 00:16:43 sight. Those four boosters firing together
00:16:43 --> 00:16:45 should make for an impressive liftoff.
00:16:45 --> 00:16:48 Anna: I'll definitely be watching. It's great to
00:16:48 --> 00:16:50 see Europe maintaining and expanding its
00:16:50 --> 00:16:52 independent access to space.
00:16:52 --> 00:16:52 Avery: Anna.
00:16:52 --> 00:16:55 Uh, let's talk about planetary defense.
00:16:55 --> 00:16:56 Scientists have been conducting some
00:16:56 --> 00:16:59 fascinating experiments using particle
00:16:59 --> 00:17:01 accelerators to understand how asteroids
00:17:01 --> 00:17:03 might respond to deflection attempts.
00:17:03 --> 00:17:06 Anna: This is really cool work, Avery. An
00:17:06 --> 00:17:08 international research team used CERN's High
00:17:08 --> 00:17:11 Radiation to Materials facility, that's
00:17:11 --> 00:17:14 HIRADMAT, to simulate what happens when
00:17:14 --> 00:17:17 high energy impacts strike iron rich
00:17:17 --> 00:17:19 asteroids. And what they found could
00:17:19 --> 00:17:21 significantly change our approach to
00:17:21 --> 00:17:22 planetary defense.
00:17:22 --> 00:17:24 Avery: Before we get into the results, can you set
00:17:24 --> 00:17:26 up the context? Uh, why is this research
00:17:26 --> 00:17:27 important?
00:17:27 --> 00:17:29 Anna: Sure. We know There are around
00:17:29 --> 00:17:32 37 known near Earth
00:17:32 --> 00:17:35 asteroids and 120 short period
00:17:35 --> 00:17:37 comets whose orbits bring them close to
00:17:37 --> 00:17:40 Earth. While scientists are confident that
00:17:40 --> 00:17:42 none of the known potentially hazardous
00:17:42 --> 00:17:44 objects will strike Earth within the next
00:17:44 --> 00:17:47 century, we know that eventually planetary
00:17:47 --> 00:17:48 defense measures will be needed.
00:17:49 --> 00:17:51 Avery: And NASA's DART mission demonstrated one
00:17:51 --> 00:17:53 approach. The kinetic impactor.
00:17:53 --> 00:17:56 Anna: Exactly. In 2022, Dart
00:17:56 --> 00:17:58 successfully struck the asteroid Dimorphos
00:17:58 --> 00:18:01 and altered its orbit. But to do this
00:18:01 --> 00:18:03 reliably and develop effective defense
00:18:03 --> 00:18:05 strategies, we need to understand how
00:18:05 --> 00:18:07 different types of asteroids respond to
00:18:07 --> 00:18:10 impacts. And that's where this new research
00:18:10 --> 00:18:10 comes in.
00:18:11 --> 00:18:13 Avery: So they focus specifically on iron rich
00:18:13 --> 00:18:14 asteroids.
00:18:14 --> 00:18:17 Anna: Right? What astronomers call M M type
00:18:17 --> 00:18:19 asteroids. These are thought to be exposed
00:18:19 --> 00:18:22 metallic cores of ancient protoplanets
00:18:22 --> 00:18:24 that were shattered in collisions billions of
00:18:24 --> 00:18:27 years ago. They're made primarily of iron and
00:18:27 --> 00:18:29 nickel, unlike the more common rocky
00:18:29 --> 00:18:31 asteroids or icy comets.
00:18:31 --> 00:18:34 Avery: How did they simulate an asteroid impact? In
00:18:34 --> 00:18:34 the lab?
00:18:35 --> 00:18:37 Anna: This is where it gets really clever. They
00:18:37 --> 00:18:40 used a sample of the Campo del CIO iron
00:18:40 --> 00:18:42 meteorite, which is a well studied iron
00:18:42 --> 00:18:45 meteorite from Argentina. They subjected it
00:18:45 --> 00:18:47 to extremely energetic 440
00:18:47 --> 00:18:50 GeV proton beams at CERN's
00:18:50 --> 00:18:53 high RadMat facility. At CERN, that's an
00:18:53 --> 00:18:54 incredibly high energy level.
00:18:55 --> 00:18:57 Avery: And how did they measure what happened to the
00:18:57 --> 00:18:57 sample?
00:18:57 --> 00:18:59 Anna: They used a technique, uh, called Doppler
00:18:59 --> 00:19:02 vibrometry, which can detect tiny surface
00:19:02 --> 00:19:05 vibrations. This allowed them to capture real
00:19:05 --> 00:19:08 time data on how the material responded to
00:19:08 --> 00:19:10 rapidly increasing stress, all without
00:19:10 --> 00:19:13 destroying the sample. They could see exactly
00:19:13 --> 00:19:15 how iron behaved under extreme conditions.
00:19:16 --> 00:19:17 Avery: What did they discover?
00:19:17 --> 00:19:19 Anna: This is where it gets really interesting. The
00:19:19 --> 00:19:22 results showed that M M type asteroids can
00:19:22 --> 00:19:24 absorb significantly more energy without
00:19:24 --> 00:19:27 fragmenting than conventional models
00:19:27 --> 00:19:29 predicted. But even more surprisingly, the
00:19:29 --> 00:19:31 meteorite actually got tougher as it was
00:19:31 --> 00:19:33 subjected to increasing stress.
00:19:34 --> 00:19:36 Avery: Wait, it got stronger under stress?
00:19:36 --> 00:19:39 Anna: Yes. The researchers found that the iron
00:19:39 --> 00:19:42 dissipated more energy as stress
00:19:42 --> 00:19:44 increased, suggesting that the internal
00:19:44 --> 00:19:47 structure of asteroids can redistribute and
00:19:47 --> 00:19:50 amplify stress in unexpected ways,
00:19:50 --> 00:19:53 Similar to what we see in complex composite
00:19:53 --> 00:19:53 materials.
00:19:54 --> 00:19:57 Avery: That seems counterintuitive. You'd expect
00:19:57 --> 00:20:00 materials to weaken under extreme stress, not
00:20:00 --> 00:20:00 strengthen.
00:20:01 --> 00:20:03 Anna: That's exactly why this is such an important
00:20:03 --> 00:20:06 finding. It contradicts what conventional
00:20:06 --> 00:20:08 models have suggested. One of the study's co
00:20:08 --> 00:20:11 authors, Professor Gianluca Grigori from the
00:20:11 --> 00:20:14 University of Oxford, said this is the first
00:20:14 --> 00:20:16 time they've been able to observe in real
00:20:16 --> 00:20:19 time. How an actual meteorite sample
00:20:19 --> 00:20:22 deforms, strengthens, and adapts under
00:20:22 --> 00:20:24 extreme conditions without destroying it.
00:20:25 --> 00:20:27 Avery: So what does this mean for planetary defense
00:20:27 --> 00:20:27 strategies?
00:20:28 --> 00:20:31 Anna: A couple of things. First, it means that iron
00:20:31 --> 00:20:33 rich asteroids might be harder to deflect
00:20:33 --> 00:20:36 than we thought. Because they can absorb more
00:20:36 --> 00:20:38 energy without breaking apart. But it also
00:20:38 --> 00:20:41 suggests that we could potentially deliver
00:20:41 --> 00:20:43 energy deep inside an asteroid without
00:20:44 --> 00:20:44 fragmenting it.
00:20:45 --> 00:20:47 Avery: That could be useful if you want to push an
00:20:47 --> 00:20:49 asteroid rather than shatter it.
00:20:49 --> 00:20:52 Anna: Exactly. The research also helps explain
00:20:52 --> 00:20:54 a long standing puzzle in planetary defense.
00:20:55 --> 00:20:57 Why there's often a discrepancy between what
00:20:57 --> 00:21:00 we infer from meteorite breakup in Earth's
00:21:00 --> 00:21:02 atmosphere. And actual laboratory
00:21:02 --> 00:21:05 measurements of meteorite strength. This
00:21:05 --> 00:21:07 study shows that internal stress
00:21:07 --> 00:21:09 redistribution. Within the heterogeneous
00:21:09 --> 00:21:12 structure of meteorites can explain that
00:21:12 --> 00:21:12 difference.
00:21:13 --> 00:21:15 Avery: This sounds like it could inform new
00:21:15 --> 00:21:16 deflection methods.
00:21:16 --> 00:21:18 Anna: That's the hope. The data could help develop
00:21:19 --> 00:21:21 redirection techniques. That push asteroids
00:21:21 --> 00:21:24 more effectively while keeping them intact.
00:21:24 --> 00:21:26 After all, the last thing you want when
00:21:26 --> 00:21:29 deflecting an asteroid. Is to break it into
00:21:29 --> 00:21:31 multiple pieces that might still pose a
00:21:31 --> 00:21:31 threat.
00:21:32 --> 00:21:33 Avery: Have they tested this with other types of
00:21:33 --> 00:21:34 asteroid materials?
00:21:35 --> 00:21:37 Anna: This particular study focused on iron
00:21:37 --> 00:21:39 meteorites. But the methodology could be
00:21:39 --> 00:21:42 applied to other types of asteroids. Rocky
00:21:42 --> 00:21:45 asteroids, carbonaceous asteroids, and so on.
00:21:45 --> 00:21:47 Each type would likely behave differently
00:21:47 --> 00:21:50 under extreme stress. And understanding those
00:21:50 --> 00:21:53 differences is crucial for developing a, uh,
00:21:53 --> 00:21:55 comprehensive planetary defense toolkit.
00:21:55 --> 00:21:58 Avery: I think what's particularly valuable here is
00:21:58 --> 00:22:00 that they've developed a technique. That can
00:22:00 --> 00:22:02 test actual meteorite samples non
00:22:02 --> 00:22:05 destructively. That means we can build up a
00:22:05 --> 00:22:07 library of data on how different asteroid
00:22:07 --> 00:22:09 materials behave. Without having to rely
00:22:09 --> 00:22:12 solely on computer simulations or destroying
00:22:12 --> 00:22:13 precious samples.
00:22:14 --> 00:22:16 Anna: And as we continue to study asteroids with
00:22:16 --> 00:22:18 missions like Osiris x and
00:22:18 --> 00:22:21 Hayabusa2, we'll have more samples to
00:22:21 --> 00:22:21 test.
00:22:22 --> 00:22:24 Avery: Exactly. The combination of sample return
00:22:24 --> 00:22:27 missions, laboratory testing like this, and
00:22:27 --> 00:22:29 missions like DART that demonstrate actual
00:22:29 --> 00:22:32 deflection techniques. It's all building
00:22:32 --> 00:22:34 toward a real capability to protect Earth
00:22:34 --> 00:22:35 from asteroid impacts.
00:22:35 --> 00:22:38 Anna: It's reassuring to know that even though we
00:22:38 --> 00:22:40 don't face an immediate threat, we're doing
00:22:40 --> 00:22:43 the groundwork now, so we'll be prepared when
00:22:43 --> 00:22:43 we need to be.
00:22:44 --> 00:22:46 Avery: Absolutely. And this research was just
00:22:46 --> 00:22:49 published in Nature communications, so it's
00:22:49 --> 00:22:51 getting a lot of attention from the planetary
00:22:51 --> 00:22:51 defense community.
00:22:52 --> 00:22:52 Anna: Avery.
00:22:52 --> 00:22:54 Our next story sounds like something out of
00:22:54 --> 00:22:57 science fiction, but it's very much real
00:22:57 --> 00:23:00 and increasingly necessary. China
00:23:00 --> 00:23:03 has released the world's first practical
00:23:03 --> 00:23:05 software for keeping time on the moon.
00:23:05 --> 00:23:08 Avery: Lunar timekeeping software. When you say
00:23:08 --> 00:23:10 it out loud, it really drives home how much
00:23:10 --> 00:23:13 space exploration has advanced. Why do we
00:23:13 --> 00:23:15 need to keep time differently on the moon?
00:23:16 --> 00:23:18 Anna: It all comes down to Einstein's theory of
00:23:18 --> 00:23:21 general relativity. Time doesn't pass at, uh,
00:23:21 --> 00:23:23 the same rate everywhere. It's affected by
00:23:23 --> 00:23:26 both gravity and velocity. The moon's
00:23:26 --> 00:23:28 gravity is weaker than Earth's, which means
00:23:28 --> 00:23:31 time actually passes slightly faster on the
00:23:31 --> 00:23:33 moon than it does on Earth.
00:23:33 --> 00:23:35 Avery: How much faster are we talking about?
00:23:35 --> 00:23:38 Anna: About 5, 6 millionths of a second
00:23:38 --> 00:23:41 per day. Now, that might not sound like much,
00:23:41 --> 00:23:44 but it adds up over time, and it can
00:23:44 --> 00:23:46 seriously disrupt navigation systems,
00:23:46 --> 00:23:49 Especially when you're trying to do precision
00:23:49 --> 00:23:50 work on the lunar surface.
00:23:51 --> 00:23:53 Avery: So this is a precision navigation issue.
00:23:53 --> 00:23:56 Anna: Exactly. Think about gps. On Earth,
00:23:56 --> 00:23:59 the satellites constantly have to correct for
00:23:59 --> 00:24:01 relativistic effects caused by gravity and
00:24:01 --> 00:24:04 motion. Those corrections are, uh, what allow
00:24:04 --> 00:24:07 your phone to pinpoint your location within
00:24:07 --> 00:24:09 just a few meters without accounting for
00:24:09 --> 00:24:12 relativity. GPS would be useless within
00:24:12 --> 00:24:12 minutes.
00:24:13 --> 00:24:15 Avery: And the moon is about to have a similar need
00:24:15 --> 00:24:16 for precision navigation.
00:24:16 --> 00:24:19 Anna: Right. In the past, this wasn't really a
00:24:19 --> 00:24:21 problem because lunar missions were rare,
00:24:21 --> 00:24:24 short, and mostly isolated. Engineers
00:24:24 --> 00:24:27 could just use Earth time and apply mission
00:24:27 --> 00:24:29 specific fixes when needed. But that's
00:24:29 --> 00:24:31 changing rapidly because we're about.
00:24:31 --> 00:24:34 Avery: To have multiple spacecraft and eventually
00:24:34 --> 00:24:36 humans operating on the moon simultaneously.
00:24:36 --> 00:24:39 Anna: Exactly. Under those conditions, relying on
00:24:39 --> 00:24:42 custom fixes for each mission becomes risky
00:24:42 --> 00:24:44 and inefficient. You need a
00:24:44 --> 00:24:47 standardized lunar time reference that
00:24:47 --> 00:24:48 everyone can use.
00:24:48 --> 00:24:51 Avery: So what exactly did the Chinese team create?
00:24:51 --> 00:24:53 Anna: Researchers from the Purple Mountain
00:24:53 --> 00:24:56 Observatory in Nanjing developed detailed
00:24:56 --> 00:24:58 software called LTE 440.
00:24:59 --> 00:25:01 That stands for lunar time ephemeris.
00:25:02 --> 00:25:04 It's based on modern planetary data and
00:25:04 --> 00:25:07 tracks how lunar time drifts relative to
00:25:07 --> 00:25:09 Earth time. The software automates
00:25:09 --> 00:25:11 calculations that once required deep
00:25:11 --> 00:25:14 expertise in relativity and celestial
00:25:14 --> 00:25:15 mechanics.
00:25:15 --> 00:25:16 Avery: How accurate is it?
00:25:17 --> 00:25:19 Anna: Remarkably accurate. The researchers found
00:25:19 --> 00:25:22 their method stays accurate to within a few
00:25:22 --> 00:25:25 tens of nanoseconds, Even when projected over
00:25:25 --> 00:25:27 a thousand years. And to keep daily
00:25:27 --> 00:25:29 differences within about 10 nanoseconds,
00:25:30 --> 00:25:32 the calculations need to be accurate to parts
00:25:32 --> 00:25:35 in 10 trillion. Their tests show
00:25:35 --> 00:25:38 LTE 440 meets that standard.
00:25:38 --> 00:25:40 Avery: Why such extreme precision?
00:25:41 --> 00:25:43 Anna: Well, navigation is one driver, but there's
00:25:43 --> 00:25:45 also science. The Moon offers unique
00:25:45 --> 00:25:48 conditions for astronomy. No atmosphere,
00:25:48 --> 00:25:51 minimal interference. One promising idea
00:25:51 --> 00:25:54 is Earth Moon, very long baseline
00:25:54 --> 00:25:56 interferometry, where you link radio
00:25:56 --> 00:25:59 telescopes on Earth and the Moon to create
00:25:59 --> 00:26:01 sharper images of distant objects.
00:26:01 --> 00:26:03 Avery: Um, and that requires extremely precise
00:26:03 --> 00:26:04 timing.
00:26:04 --> 00:26:07 Anna: Right. Signals recorded on both bodies need
00:26:07 --> 00:26:09 to be timestamped to better than a
00:26:09 --> 00:26:11 microsecond to allow for instrument noise.
00:26:11 --> 00:26:14 The underlying time model needs to be even
00:26:14 --> 00:26:17 more accurate. Hence the extreme precision
00:26:17 --> 00:26:17 requirements.
00:26:18 --> 00:26:20 Avery: How does the software actually work?
00:26:20 --> 00:26:23 Anna: Instead of using long equations, they used a
00:26:23 --> 00:26:26 numerical approach based on a planetary model
00:26:26 --> 00:26:29 called DE440, which tracks
00:26:29 --> 00:26:31 the positions and velocities of solar system
00:26:31 --> 00:26:34 bodies with high precision. From that data,
00:26:34 --> 00:26:37 they computed how time near the Moon differs
00:26:37 --> 00:26:40 from a solar system reference time. The
00:26:40 --> 00:26:42 software stores these results in compact
00:26:42 --> 00:26:44 files that can be quickly interpolated.
00:26:45 --> 00:26:47 Avery: What affects lunar time most?
00:26:47 --> 00:26:49 Anna: The Moon's motion and the Sun's gravity
00:26:49 --> 00:26:52 dominate the effect. But Earth, Jupiter,
00:26:52 --> 00:26:55 and even distant objects in the Kuiper Belt
00:26:55 --> 00:26:58 add smaller effects. There are monthly and
00:26:58 --> 00:27:00 yearly patterns that range from milliseconds
00:27:00 --> 00:27:02 down to microseconds.
00:27:02 --> 00:27:04 Avery: I'm curious about the international response
00:27:04 --> 00:27:07 to this. Is China the only one working on
00:27:07 --> 00:27:07 this?
00:27:07 --> 00:27:10 Anna: That's a great question. Jonathan McDowell,
00:27:10 --> 00:27:12 an astronomer at Harvard, told reporters that
00:27:12 --> 00:27:15 similar efforts are underway in the United
00:27:15 --> 00:27:17 States, but he's not aware of another openly
00:27:17 --> 00:27:20 available tool like this. He emphasized that
00:27:20 --> 00:27:23 this shows China is serious about lunar
00:27:23 --> 00:27:25 exploration and is being quite open about
00:27:25 --> 00:27:27 sharing its lunar related research.
00:27:28 --> 00:27:29 Avery: That's actually encouraging from an
00:27:29 --> 00:27:31 international cooperation standpoint.
00:27:31 --> 00:27:34 Anna: I think so, too. And it's worth noting that
00:27:34 --> 00:27:36 in 2024, the International Astronomical
00:27:36 --> 00:27:39 Union adopted a, uh, framework calling for
00:27:39 --> 00:27:42 the Moon to have its own time reference. So
00:27:42 --> 00:27:44 this software really builds on that
00:27:44 --> 00:27:45 international consensus.
00:27:45 --> 00:27:48 Avery: What are the practical implications for
00:27:48 --> 00:27:48 upcoming.
00:27:48 --> 00:27:50 Anna: Missions as lunar activity
00:27:50 --> 00:27:53 increases? And we're talking about
00:27:53 --> 00:27:56 NASA's Artemis program, China's
00:27:56 --> 00:27:58 own lunar base plans, commercial lunar
00:27:58 --> 00:28:01 landers, and more reliable
00:28:01 --> 00:28:04 timekeeping will support safer landings,
00:28:04 --> 00:28:07 smoother navigation, and better coordination
00:28:07 --> 00:28:10 between missions. Eventually, we'll likely
00:28:10 --> 00:28:13 see lunar GPS style systems
00:28:13 --> 00:28:15 that depend on this kind of precise
00:28:15 --> 00:28:16 timekeeping.
00:28:16 --> 00:28:18 Avery: It really is laying the groundwork for
00:28:18 --> 00:28:20 sustained human presence on the Moon.
00:28:20 --> 00:28:23 Anna: Absolutely. And the Researchers emphasize
00:28:23 --> 00:28:26 that LTE 440 is just an
00:28:26 --> 00:28:29 early step. Future versions will need to
00:28:29 --> 00:28:32 support real time navigation and networks
00:28:32 --> 00:28:35 of lunar clocks. But the release marks
00:28:35 --> 00:28:37 a shift from abstract planning to
00:28:37 --> 00:28:39 practical infrastructure.
00:28:39 --> 00:28:41 Avery: It's one of those things that sounds mundane
00:28:41 --> 00:28:44 time software, but is actually fundamental to
00:28:44 --> 00:28:46 making lunar operations work.
00:28:46 --> 00:28:49 Anna: Exactly. You can have the fanciest rockets
00:28:49 --> 00:28:51 and landers in the world. But if your
00:28:51 --> 00:28:54 spacecraft can't agree on what time it is,
00:28:54 --> 00:28:56 you're going to have problems. This is the
00:28:56 --> 00:28:59 kind of unsexy but essential infrastructure
00:28:59 --> 00:29:02 work that makes the exciting stuff possible.
00:29:02 --> 00:29:04 Avery: For our final story today, let's talk about
00:29:04 --> 00:29:07 the Hubble Space Telescope. After 35 years in
00:29:07 --> 00:29:09 orbit, it's still delivering incredible
00:29:09 --> 00:29:10 science.
00:29:10 --> 00:29:13 Anna: It really is remarkable. NASA just
00:29:13 --> 00:29:15 released a new gallery of Hubble images
00:29:16 --> 00:29:19 showing protoplanetary disks around young
00:29:19 --> 00:29:21 stars, essentially the birthplaces of
00:29:21 --> 00:29:24 planets. And these images beautifully
00:29:24 --> 00:29:27 illustrate one of Hubble's original mission
00:29:27 --> 00:29:29 understanding how planets form.
00:29:30 --> 00:29:31 Avery: Can you walk us through what we're seeing in
00:29:31 --> 00:29:32 these images?
00:29:32 --> 00:29:35 Anna: Sure. When stars form, they're surrounded
00:29:35 --> 00:29:38 by gas and dust left over from the formation
00:29:38 --> 00:29:41 process. In the early stages, this is called
00:29:41 --> 00:29:44 a circumstellar disk. But once planets
00:29:44 --> 00:29:46 start forming in the disk, we call it a
00:29:46 --> 00:29:49 protoplanetary disk. These disks are
00:29:49 --> 00:29:52 where planetary systems like our own solar
00:29:52 --> 00:29:52 system come from.
00:29:53 --> 00:29:55 Avery: What makes these particular images special?
00:29:55 --> 00:29:58 Anna: Hubble captured them using two different
00:29:58 --> 00:30:00 approaches. The visible light images taken
00:30:00 --> 00:30:03 with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys,
00:30:03 --> 00:30:06 show four plutoplanetary disks where you
00:30:06 --> 00:30:09 can actually see polar jets of gas
00:30:09 --> 00:30:12 shooting out from the young stars. You can
00:30:12 --> 00:30:15 also see brightly lit nebulae, and
00:30:15 --> 00:30:17 there's this cool effect where the dark band
00:30:17 --> 00:30:20 around each star is actually a shadow
00:30:20 --> 00:30:23 cast onto the nebula by the disk itself.
00:30:23 --> 00:30:26 Avery: That's wild. So we're seeing the shadow of
00:30:26 --> 00:30:28 the planet forming disk.
00:30:28 --> 00:30:31 Anna: Exactly. And each of these systems has
00:30:31 --> 00:30:33 unique characteristics. One, called
00:30:33 --> 00:30:36 HH390, isn't quite edge
00:30:36 --> 00:30:39 on, so you only see one side of its
00:30:39 --> 00:30:41 nebulosity. Another,
00:30:41 --> 00:30:44 TAU042021,
00:30:44 --> 00:30:47 is seen edge on and is in a later stage
00:30:47 --> 00:30:49 of evolution where the dust grains have
00:30:49 --> 00:30:51 already clumped together into larger grains,
00:30:52 --> 00:30:54 which is part of the planet formation
00:30:54 --> 00:30:54 process.
00:30:55 --> 00:30:57 Avery: What about that third one, HH48?
00:30:57 --> 00:31:00 Anna: Oh, that's particularly interesting.
00:31:00 --> 00:31:03 HH48 is actually a
00:31:03 --> 00:31:06 binary protostar system. And you can see
00:31:06 --> 00:31:08 how the gravitational power from the larger
00:31:08 --> 00:31:11 star is shaping the disk around its less
00:31:11 --> 00:31:14 massive companion. It's a great example of
00:31:14 --> 00:31:17 how stellar environments affect planet
00:31:17 --> 00:31:17 formation.
00:31:17 --> 00:31:19 Avery: And, um, the infrared images show something
00:31:19 --> 00:31:20 different.
00:31:20 --> 00:31:23 Anna: Right. The infrared images taken with
00:31:23 --> 00:31:26 Hubble's Wide Field Camera three show
00:31:26 --> 00:31:28 the bright protostars despite being
00:31:28 --> 00:31:31 surrounded by dust. Dust absorbs
00:31:31 --> 00:31:34 starlight and then re emits it in infrared,
00:31:34 --> 00:31:36 which allows Hubble to see the stars. The
00:31:36 --> 00:31:39 jets aren't visible in these infrared images,
00:31:39 --> 00:31:42 but you get a much better view of the stars
00:31:42 --> 00:31:44 themselves and their dusty disks.
00:31:44 --> 00:31:47 Avery: Where are these protoplanetary disks located?
00:31:47 --> 00:31:50 Anna: Most of them are in well known star forming
00:31:50 --> 00:31:52 regions. Several are in the Orion
00:31:52 --> 00:31:55 Molecular Cloud Complex. That's one of the
00:31:55 --> 00:31:58 most active star forming regions visible from
00:31:58 --> 00:32:01 earth, located about 1500 light years
00:32:01 --> 00:32:04 away. Others are in the Perseus Molecular
00:32:04 --> 00:32:04 Cloud.
00:32:05 --> 00:32:06 Avery: Now we also have the James Webb Space
00:32:06 --> 00:32:09 Telescope observing these kinds of objects.
00:32:09 --> 00:32:11 How do Hubble's observations compare?
00:32:11 --> 00:32:14 Anna: That's a great question. JWST
00:32:14 --> 00:32:17 has been doing incredible work on protostars
00:32:17 --> 00:32:20 and protoplanetary disks too. In fact,
00:32:20 --> 00:32:23 there was research published in 2024 based on
00:32:23 --> 00:32:26 JWST observations showing that
00:32:26 --> 00:32:29 some young protostars have layered structures
00:32:29 --> 00:32:32 of winds and jets, inner jets surrounded
00:32:32 --> 00:32:33 by outer cone shaped jets.
00:32:34 --> 00:32:36 Avery: So the two telescopes are complementary.
00:32:37 --> 00:32:40 Anna: Exactly. Hubble excels in visible and
00:32:40 --> 00:32:42 some infrared wavelengths, while JWST
00:32:43 --> 00:32:45 is optimized for infrared. Together they give
00:32:45 --> 00:32:48 us a much more complete picture. For
00:32:48 --> 00:32:50 instance, Hubble can show us those beautiful
00:32:50 --> 00:32:53 jets and nebulae in visible light, While
00:32:53 --> 00:32:56 JWST can peer through dust to
00:32:56 --> 00:32:58 see the nested structure of winds and jets
00:32:58 --> 00:33:00 using different chemical tracers.
00:33:01 --> 00:33:03 Avery: How much longer can we expect Hubble to keep
00:33:03 --> 00:33:03 operating?
00:33:04 --> 00:33:07 Anna: That's the big question. Hubble was launched
00:33:07 --> 00:33:10 in 1990 with an expected 15 year
00:33:10 --> 00:33:12 lifetime, but it's now lasted more than
00:33:12 --> 00:33:15 35 years thanks to five servicing
00:33:15 --> 00:33:18 missions. However, it is showing its age.
00:33:18 --> 00:33:21 The telescope has been losing gyroscopes,
00:33:21 --> 00:33:23 which means it takes more time to point at
00:33:23 --> 00:33:26 targets. Observations are down by about
00:33:26 --> 00:33:29 12% with a corresponding reduction
00:33:29 --> 00:33:30 in science output.
00:33:30 --> 00:33:32 Avery: But it's still functioning, right?
00:33:32 --> 00:33:35 Anna: Oh, yes. NASA expects Hubble to keep
00:33:35 --> 00:33:37 operating into the 2000 and 30s. And there's
00:33:37 --> 00:33:40 been talk, though it's not confirmed, of a
00:33:40 --> 00:33:42 possible servicing mission that could extend
00:33:42 --> 00:33:43 its life even further.
00:33:44 --> 00:33:46 Avery: Who would conduct that servicing mission?
00:33:46 --> 00:33:49 Anna: That's the interesting part. NASA doesn't
00:33:49 --> 00:33:51 have the Space Shuttle anymore, which was
00:33:51 --> 00:33:54 used for all previous servicing missions. Any
00:33:54 --> 00:33:56 future servicing mission would likely involve
00:33:56 --> 00:33:58 a, uh, commercial spacecraft, possibly
00:33:58 --> 00:34:01 something from SpaceX or another company
00:34:01 --> 00:34:03 developing servicing capabilities.
00:34:03 --> 00:34:05 Avery: It would be amazing if Hubble could keep
00:34:05 --> 00:34:06 going for another decade.
00:34:07 --> 00:34:09 Anna: It really would. And if it does, it'll
00:34:09 --> 00:34:12 continue contributing to our understanding of
00:34:12 --> 00:34:15 star formation, planet formation, and
00:34:15 --> 00:34:17 so many other areas of astronomy. These
00:34:17 --> 00:34:20 protoplanetary disk images are a perfect
00:34:20 --> 00:34:22 example of how Hubble is still answering
00:34:22 --> 00:34:25 fundamental questions about how planetary
00:34:25 --> 00:34:27 systems like ours come to be.
00:34:27 --> 00:34:30 Avery: When you think about it, Hubble has literally
00:34:30 --> 00:34:32 changed our view of the universe from the
00:34:32 --> 00:34:34 Hubble Deep Field to these protoplanetary
00:34:34 --> 00:34:37 disks. From measuring the expansion rate of
00:34:37 --> 00:34:39 the universe to studying exoplanet
00:34:39 --> 00:34:41 atmospheres, it's been an incredible
00:34:41 --> 00:34:42 horsework.
00:34:42 --> 00:34:45 Anna: Absolutely. And the fact that it's still
00:34:45 --> 00:34:47 delivering cutting edge Science More than 30
00:34:47 --> 00:34:50 decades after launch is a testament to the
00:34:50 --> 00:34:52 foresight of designing it to be serviceable
00:34:52 --> 00:34:55 and upgradable. It's a model for how we
00:34:55 --> 00:34:57 should think about building space based
00:34:57 --> 00:34:57 observatories.
00:34:58 --> 00:35:00 Avery: Well, that wraps up today's episode of
00:35:00 --> 00:35:02 Astronomy Daily. We covered a lot of ground,
00:35:02 --> 00:35:05 from the uncertain fate of NASA's MAVEN
00:35:05 --> 00:35:07 orbiter to the historic ISS medical
00:35:07 --> 00:35:10 evacuation, from Europe's expanding launch
00:35:10 --> 00:35:12 capabilities to groundbreaking asteroid
00:35:12 --> 00:35:13 defense research.
00:35:14 --> 00:35:16 Anna: And we learned about lunar timekeeping
00:35:16 --> 00:35:18 software that will enable the next generation
00:35:18 --> 00:35:21 of moon missions. AMB saw how Hubble
00:35:21 --> 00:35:23 continues to reveal the birthplaces of
00:35:23 --> 00:35:26 planets after 35 years in orbit.
00:35:26 --> 00:35:28 Avery: It's been quite a week in space news, and
00:35:28 --> 00:35:30 we've only just scratched the surface.
00:35:30 --> 00:35:33 Anna: Before we go, a quick reminder that you can
00:35:33 --> 00:35:35 find more space and astronomy news at our
00:35:35 --> 00:35:38 website astronomydaily.IO and
00:35:38 --> 00:35:40 don't forget to subscribe so you never miss
00:35:40 --> 00:35:41 an episode.
00:35:41 --> 00:35:43 Avery: You can also follow us on social media for
00:35:43 --> 00:35:45 bonus content and updates throughout the
00:35:45 --> 00:35:45 week.
00:35:46 --> 00:35:47 Anna: Thanks for joining us today, everyone.
00:35:48 --> 00:35:49 Avery: Clear skies and we'll see you on Monday.
00:35:50 --> 00:35:51 Astronomy Day
00:35:53 --> 00:35:56 Stories we told the.
00:36:01 --> 00:36:01 Story.
00:36:09 --> 00:36:10 For
00:36:10 --> 00:36:13 tomorrow.